Alexander+II+(1855-1881)

ALEXANDER II - REFORMS AND MODERNISATION

The disastrous state of affairs left by Nicholas I meant that change had to come to Russia. His son, Alexander II was responsible for introducing major changes to the social system and other important aspects of life in Russia. Because of this, the reign of Alexander II was one of the most important periods in Russian history. Many historians believe that if Alexander II had been prepared to grant moderate political concessions, along with his social, legal and military reforms, Russia might have gradually become a constitutional monarchy. But although Alexander did tackle the urgent problem of serfdom, his reforms did not go far enough and he too was determined to hang on to his autocratic power.

After the defeat in the Crimean War many Russians now realised that Russia's only hope for military survival lay with modernisation. This would mean industrialisation to supply the military, improvements to communications and the introduction of a railway system. Financial reforms were introduced to meet the needs of the government not of the private sector. In 1860 Alexander II established the State Bank to provide credit for industrial development to supply the needs of the military. However, historian David Christian says that the government was 'hostile' to other forms of industrialisation. Although there had been some financial reforms and industrialisation had started, by 1894 Russia was still largely the same agricultural nation it had been at the start of the century. Emancipation had done little to relieve the distress of the peasantry who were now tied to the land by debt rather than by obligation. There were no moves to improve the lives for workers in the cities who worked long hours, for low wages, in dangerous and dirty conditions and lived in squalid tenements.

Like Alexander I, Alexander II began as a liberal tsar but when his attempts at reform brought about demands for further reforms and the outbreak of rebellions in Poland, he too returned to the repressive system of the past. And again the return to repression led to the growth of secret, revolutionary organisations pressing for political reform. After a number of attempts on his life, a revolutionary group finally assassinated Alexander II in 1881.

Some historians have suggested that Alexander II was not really a liberal and that he introduced his reforms for practical reasons. He feared that peasant unrest could lead to revolution. Alexander made an important speech to a meeting of nobles in Moscow in 1856. He said: //‘...the existing order of serfdom cannot remain unchanged. Its is better to begin abolishing serfdom from above that to wait for a time when it will begin to abolish itself from below ...’ //

Although Alexander I and Nicholas I had recognised the problems caused by serfdom, this was the first time the government had committed itself publicly to its reform.

The aftermath of the Crimean War (source analysis)

**THE EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS**

Alexander II introduced a series of great reforms which transformed the social system but failed to establish a firm base for his government. The emancipation of the serfs is seen as 'too little, too late'. Because of this it failed to end the major problems in the countryside.

Alexander did not relish this choice but knew that serfdom was at the root of Russia's economic backwardness. Without change the army could not be modernised. Industry could not develop rapidly without a plentiful supply of free labour and this could only be possible if the serf masses were freed from the land. He expected the powerful land-owning and serf-owning landlords to oppose the reform. Less than two weeks after signing the Treaty of Paris in 1856 which ended the Crimea War he proclaimed a program of social reform.

Alexander insisted on three principles in the emancipation process
 * The serfs must be freed with land to prevent them becoming a propertyless mass
 * The operation must be peaceful
 * The serfs must be guaranteed full personal freedom

__ **Reactions to emancipation ** __

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">The peasants felt cheated by the terms of emancipation. There were many peasant riots between 1861 and 1853. They believed that they owned the land they worked on and told the nobles "we are yours but the land is ours". The Tsar's decree however, began by saying the peasants were now free but they would have to buy their land and cottages. When the details of the Emancipation Act were made public there were many peasant riots between 1861 and 1853. The thought of paying for land they believed they already owned appalled most peasants. Also the land settlement sold less land to the peasants than they had used before 1861 and at very high prices. Added to this the landowners retained ownership of the best, most fertile land.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Emancipation did not result in private ownership of the land which remained under the control of the village commune and peasants still could not leave the area without permission. In effect the government had bought the land from the nobles and sold it to the peasants but the peasants had to borrow money to buy the land which left most of them deeply in debt. The idea of paying for land they had always considered to be their own horrified many peasants. Instead of freeing up the peasantry as free labour they were now tied to the land by debt and the Mir. The domestic serfs suffered most as they were freed without land.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">As well as this the peasants had other problems. Farms were often too small to feed a family, taxes remained high, farming methods were very old-fashioned and the peasants did not have the money to invest in modern equipment.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">The nobility lost access to free labour under the terms of emancipation as well as feudal taxes paid to them by the peasants. They also lost their traditional powers over justice and police matters. In the short term they gained from the payments they received as compensation from the government. However, almost half of the money paid to nobles went to repay old debts. The reforms created serious problems for the nobility, without serfs they were no longer guaranteed an income. To survive they would have to develop businesslike skills. Most nobles despised business and few had the interest or the ability to run their estates in a businesslike manner. Many failed to adapt and so sold their land. The government relied less on the nobility for support after emancipation, relying instead on the bureaucracy to carry out their commands. So, the nobility, after emancipation, lost status.

__ **<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 150%;">Results of Emancipation ** __

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">About fifty million serfs were emancipated in 1861 and the granting of freedom clearly meant a lot to the peasants. The riots which broke out when Emancipation was introduced died away after 1862. There were some economic benefits for Russia as a result of the reforms. Emancipation was seen as an essential transition to a capitalist, industrialised economy. Many serfs did move to the cities and industrial centres and took work in the factories and mines. Russia was not an industrialised nation yet but by the 1890s the Russian industrial economy was growing at a faster rate than the rest of Europe. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 150%; text-align: center;">**OTHER REFORMS**

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Among his first measures after the end of the Crimean war, Alexander II:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">released the surviving Decembrists and other rebels from exile
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">removed many thousands from police supervision
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">lifted restrictions imposed on university students
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">ordered a revision of the censorship regulations
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">suspended recruitment for the army
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">cancelled outstanding/overdue taxes
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">showed more tolerance to Poland and the Catholic Church.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">The Emancipation of the Serfs removed a social system which had been in place since the Middle Ages. With Feudalism dismantled, the Tsar had to introduce a new system of local government. Remember that the nobility had been in charge of local affairs on their estates under the system of serfdom. A new body was now needed to take care of such matters as the:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">maintenance of roads and bridges
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">upkeep of hospitals, prisons
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">promotion of industry and agriculture
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">prevention of famine
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">responsibility for public health and education,the welfare of the poor.

__**<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Zemstva **__ <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">These new organisations, called Zemstva, were introduced in 1864. Zemstva were elected local government assemblies rather like our local councils. All classes could elect members to the Zemstva but the voting system was structured to heavily favour the nobility. In 1866, 74 per cent of all delegates in Zemstva were nobles - clearly they were still the dominant class in local government. However, there were now also representatives of the middle-classes in the <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Zemstva. Doctors, lawyers, teachers and nurses all took part in local government for the first time.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">The power of the Zemstva was limited from the start. Zemstva were introduced slowly and central government never funded them properly or gave them much power. In all areas of their concern the government retained a powerfUl means of control. Provincial governors had the power reverse decisions if they felt they were going against the wishes of the government. The bureaucracy was hostile to the Zemstva from the start and denied them adequate funds to carry <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">out local improvements or to introduce changes.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Despite all of these restrictions Zemstva soon became a powerful voice in Russian life and a place where people could express critical opinions on the government. Because of this they became a powerful anti-tsarist meeting place.

__**<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Legal Reforms **__ <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Before 1864 the courts in Russia were very corrupt and bribery was common. They were often staffed by judges who had little or no legal training. This system was replaced by a system which more closely resembled the Western system of justice. The new system meant that:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">cases were heard in open court in front of juries and the judiciary became independent of the government
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">lawyers had to have some legal training and people were now allowed to hire a defence counsel
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">judges were better trained and better paid to end corruption
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">legal floggings as punishment were cut down.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;"> But, once again, the government limited the authority of the new court because:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">government officials could only be put on trial with the permission of the government
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">certain types of crime had to be tried before military courts
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">peasants had to be tried in special courts outside the new system.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">A shortage of trained lawyers meant that these reforms were slow to come into being. The <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">police, especially the secret police, remained powerful and acted outside of the law. The <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">government continued to have a lot of influence over the judges.

__**<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Military Reforms **__ <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">The failure in the Crimean War led to a series of military reforms that took place between 1863 and 1875. Alexander put his Minister for War General Milyutin in charge of these changes. In an attempt to get a smaller, better trained, better led, better equipped and more mobile army Milyutin made the following changes:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">conscription was now open to all classes not just the peasants
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">length of service dropped from 25 years to 6 years
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">better officer training was introduced and the promotion of non-noble officers was introduced
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">a broad system of education for all soldiers was introduced
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">the administration of the army was reorganised.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Similar reforms were made in the navy.

__**<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Education and Censorship **__ <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">The government also extended primary and secondary education. Students from poor families now had better access to education. The spread of education led to a growing demand for newspapers, books and magazines. By 1855 there were 140 magazines in circulation. In 1865 Alexander issued a decree which relaxed the harsh censorship laws put in place by his father.

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Arial Black',Gadget,sans-serif; font-size: 150%; text-align: center;">**HOW SUCCESSFUL AND EFFECTIVE WERE THE GREAT REFORMS?**

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">How successful were the 'Great Reforms"? Alexander had undertaken a radical overhaul of social, economic, political and military issues but he did not intend this to affect his autocratic power as a Tsar. His system of reform has been criticised because of its limited nature. Alexander weakened the power of the aristocracy and changed the position of the masses. These painful and important changes had do be made to modernise Russia. Many historians identify the contradictions between granting this series of reforms while refusing to allow wider sections of society to take part in the process of government. Even in the Zemstva which many hoped would lead to further participation in government, he was determined to prevent this. These contradictions caused Alexander's reforms to increase discontent.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">The reforms led to an appetite for more reforms and this was to cause more problems in the future because:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">peasants felt cheated by land reforms and their economic conditions did not improve
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">nobles lost part of their land and access to income from owning serfs and their powers had been replaced by Zemstva.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">legal and military reforms were spoiled by continuing corruption and the slow pace of reform

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;"> The government gain most from the reforms because:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">feudal taxes previously paid to the nobles were replaced by redemption taxes paid to the government
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">legal reforms extended government control in the countryside
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">Zemstva came increasingly under the control of the government.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 140%;">In the long term the tsarist regime would pay heavily for the inadequacies of the reforms. While government power increased after 1861 so did discontent among wide sections of the community. Revolutionary groups were formed to force the government to bring in further reforms. Out of this discontent the seeds of the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 were born. It has been suggested that if Alexander had made the constitutional reforms he promised these revolutions may have not have happened.

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 140%;">Assessing the reforms

<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 140%;">Historical Interpretation: Alexander II... "Tsar Liberator"?

<span style="display: block; font-family: Impact,Charcoal,sans-serif; font-size: 150%; text-align: right;">Return to previous page